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  • Lately I’ve noticed something odd happening in the world of science. For the first time in my lifetime, scientists are under attack.

    Simon Lamb

    This is geologist1 Simon Lamb’s opening statement in the introduction to the documentary Thin Ice The Inside Story of Climate Science. His statement is followed with sound bites from individuals who question the science of climate change2:

    “It’s junk science, and it’s part of a massive international science fraud.”

    “There is no scientific basis whatsoever.”

    “This is a fraud and a scam and a hoax.”

    NASA reports that “97% of actively publishing climate3 scientists agree that climate-warming trends over the past century are extremely likely due to human activities”. In other words, a small proportion of scientists working in the area disagree. Dr Lamb wondered if there was any truth to arguments being made against human-induced climate change, so he did what scientists do – he looked for evidence4 to test their claims.

    Nature of science

    Asking questions is fundamental to the process of science. New questions and new ideas are what keep scientific research growing. Scientists use evidence that has been systematically gathered to support or refute existing ideas or claims.

    Science, society and culture

    Scientists seek to build knowledge about the natural world. This knowledge is produced within a larger society and culture. Cultural elements such as politics, economics, power structures, religion and philosophy can – and do – affect the direction of scientific research and the acceptance of scientific findings. Conflict can come about if new evidence means the revision of existing ideas and beliefs.

    Rights: Thin Ice/University of Waikato

    Searching for the truth

    Climate science and climate change are controversial topics in the social and political world. Climate scientists and their research are often under attack. Geologist Simon Lamb explains why he decided to explore the science behind global climate change in the movie Thin Ice – The Inside Story of Climate Science.

    This is not a new phenomenon brought about by climate change, and Dr Lamb isn’t the first scientist to ponder claims of dishonesty and disrepute about his profession. History has many scientific and social conflicts.

    There have been many famous cases of scientists clashing with the wider society in which they lived. Four hundred years ago, the Catholic Church forced Galileo Galilei to deny the heliocentric model of the cosmos – the model in which the planets revolve around the Sun rather than the Sun and planets revolving around Earth (‘helios’ means Sun, and ‘centric’ is the centre). The model had initially been put forward by another famous scientist, Nicolaus Copernicus, in 1543.

    Rights: Public Domain

    Man is but a worm

    Caricature of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution from 1882. The image was published in a Punch almanac after Darwin released The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.

    Charles Darwin’s theory5 of evolution6 also caused controversy, but not all of it came from the religious or social views of the time. Fellow scientists felt Darwin did not have enough evidence to back up his claims.

    Rights: The University of Waikato

    Darwin’s theory of evolution

    Charles Darwin described two key factors that drive evolution: genetic variation and natural selection. Here, David Ackerley of Victoria University, Wellington, discusses Darwin’s theory of evolution.

    In 1992, 359 years after his trial, Galileo received a pardon from Pope John Paul II. Wider acceptance of Darwin’s evolutionary theory came more quickly. Fifty years after his theory was published, genetic7 inheritance was discovered. Subsequent scientific research and observation have provided such a range of evidence that most – but not all – people accept evolution as an explanation for new and changing life forms.

    Cigarettes, science and scepticism

    The tobacco industry is a more contemporary example of societal conflicts with science. This time, the clash did not come from religious or philosophical arguments but from economics and politics. In the 1950s, compelling scientific evidence linked smoking with respiratory and cardiac disease8. Rather than deny this evidence, the tobacco industry chose to counter these findings with research of their own.

    Rights: 123RF Limited

    Cigarettes

    Exposure to different chemicals can increase your risk of cancer. For example, exposure to the chemicals in tobacco smoke is a major risk factor for the development of lung cancer.

    Scientists, by their very nature, are sceptical. The tobacco industry tapped into this scepticism and funded research projects that questioned the health effects of smoking. They also paid for and widely publicised research that contradicted findings about health risks. Critics accused the tobacco industry of working to squash the unfavourable medical evidence – and create doubt and controversy around the health risks.

    After decades of robust research – and public denials from tobacco companies – few people doubt that smoking causes lung and heart diseases9, but knowing that you might be damaging your health in the long term isn’t always enough to get people to stop smoking!

    Climate change, controversy and the nature of science

    Today, climate scientists are being challenged by those who doubt or deny that climate change is caused by human activities. As with evolution and health risks from tobacco, opposition comes from within the science community as well as from social or political structures. After all, it is the role of science to question, to support or disprove evidence and to revise science knowledge accordingly, but it is a small group of scientists who dispute the role of anthropogenic10 greenhouse gas11 emissions causing climate change.

    Opposition exists, but dealing with opposition in a systematic and evidenced-based manner is one of the hallmarks of science.

    Related content

    The Connected article Fake facts looks at misinformation12, malinformation13 and disinformation14 in the online media landscape. It also suggests strategies for evaluating whether information is based on facts and whether it is worth sharing.

    The ClimateViz citizen science15 project needs help interpreting climate change graphics to help combat misinformation and support scientific communication.

    Climate change resources

    Climate change – a wicked problem for classroom inquiry provides a wide range of opportunities to learn about the nature of science16 and science capabilities and to link science content knowledge to a current socio-scientific17 issue.

    Our interactive planning pathways and teacher PLD on climate change resources provide excellent support for teachers wanting to use this wicked problem18 to promote science learning in their classroom.

    Greenhouse effect explains the natural warming of the Earth’s atmosphere19. Most scientists agree that the rise in greenhouse gas production is linked to human activities.

    The Science Made Simple video Greenhouse gases provides a simple and concise explanation of greenhouse gases20 and how they function.

    The Science Learning Hub team has curated a collection of resources related to climate change. Login to make this collection part of your private collection, just click on the copy icon. You can then add additional content, notes and make other changes. Registering an account for the Science Learning Hubs is easy and free – sign up with your email address or Google account. Look for the Sign in button at the top of each page.

    Useful links

    This article from The Conversation looks at how information can be twisted: We're climate researchers and our work was turned into fake news.

    Climate Feedback is a global network of scientists that fact checks climate change news by providing feedback on the scientific accuracy21 of the online media articles.

    NASA’s Climate change: How do we know? page presents evidence that changes over the last century are very likely due to human influence.

    The Royal Society Te Apārangi Human Health Impacts of Climate Change for New Zealand (PDF) paper describes the human health impacts of climate change for New Zealand.

    The Climate Change Learning Programme supports climate literacy for young people aged 10–14. Aotearoa22 contexts and mātauranga Māori23 are embedded throughout the learning modules and the wellbeing guide. The programme was updated in 2024 to reflect current24 science climate science and knowledge. The wellbeing guide reflects multiple perspectives and fosters resilience.

    See the 2023 Office of the Prime Minister’s Chief Science Advisor report, He Uru Kahikatea Building young people’s resilience through media and information literacy and digital citizenship skills’. It proposes solutions to equip young people to understand how scientific evidence is generated, how uncertainty is communicated and how knowledge changes and advances.

    Our Science communication – sorting fact from fiction Pinterest Board curates resources that will aid educators in looking not only at science communication but also science and society.

    Acknowledgement

    Thin Ice – The Inside Story of Climate Science, a David Sington/Simon Lamb film, looks at what’s really happening with global warming by filming scientists at work in the Arctic, the Antarctic and around the world. It gives a 56-minute view of the range of human activity and scientific work being undertaken to understand the world’s changing climate. The result is a unique exploration of the science behind global warming and an intimate portrait of a global community of researchers racing to understand our planet’s changing climate.

    The Science Learning Hub has produced a series of articles using short video resources produced by the Thin Ice team. The film itself is available by emailing thiniceclimate@vuw.ac.nz. It is recommended viewing to give students context for the Hub’s articles and the videos they contain. The link for streaming is available free of charge. The DVD is also available to New Zealand schools for $20 to cover costs.

    Learn more at www.thiniceclimate.org.

    1. geologist: Someone who studies the materials and processes that form the Earth. They try to understand how the planet has changed over time.
    2. climate change: The large-scale, long-term increase in the Earth’s average temperatures, with associated changes in weather patterns. There is significant scientific evidence that warming is due to increased quantities of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, with most of the rise due to human activity.
    3. climate: The weather conditions of an area averaged over a series of years, usually 30 or more.
    4. evidence: Data, or information, used to prove or disprove something.
    5. theory: To scientists, a theory provides a coherent explanation that holds true for a large number of facts and observations about the natural world. It has to be internally consistent, based upon evidence, tested against a wide range of phenomena and demonstrate problem solving.
    6. evolution: In biology, the change in the genetic material and/or the behaviour of a population of organisms over time.
    7. genetic: Of, relating to, or determined by genes.
    8. diseases: 1. An abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions. 2. In plants, an abnormal condition that interferes with vital physiological processes.
    9. diseases: 1. An abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions. 2. In plants, an abnormal condition that interferes with vital physiological processes.
    10. anthropogenic: Changes in nature caused or influenced by humans.
    11. greenhouse gases: A natural or manmade gas that traps heat in the Earth's atmosphere and contributes to the greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone and industrial gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap warmth from the Sun and make life possible. An overabundance of greenhouse gases leads to a rise in global temperatures – known as the greenhouse effect.
    12. misinformation: Information that is wrong, but it is not shared in print or online media with the intent to hurt someone or something.
    13. malinformation: Information that is intentionally shared in print or online media to harm someone or something, but it is not based on false information.
    14. disinformation: Information that is intentionally shared in print or online media to harm someone or something, and is based on false information. This is usually done to influence people to think a certain way.
    15. citizen science: Citizen volunteers participate in scientific projects and work in partnership with scientists to answer scientific questions.
    16. nature of science: The Nature of Science (NoS), is an overarching and unifying strand of the New Zealand science curriculum. Through it, students develop the skills, attitudes and values to build a foundation for understanding the world around them – understanding how science works in order to make links between scientific knowledge and everyday decisions and actions.
    17. socio-scientific: Combining social and scientific factors.
    18. wicked problem: Complex problems that are extremely difficult to solve because of the many different aspects that interact. They often involve environmental, economic or political issues or a combination.
    19. atmosphere: 1. The layer of gas around the Earth. 2. (atm) A non-SI unit of pressure equivalent to 101.325 kPa.
    20. greenhouse gases: A natural or manmade gas that traps heat in the Earth's atmosphere and contributes to the greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone and industrial gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap warmth from the Sun and make life possible. An overabundance of greenhouse gases leads to a rise in global temperatures – known as the greenhouse effect.
    21. accuracy: In science, accuracy indicates the closeness of the measurements to the true or accepted value. In general usage, accuracy can mean precise, exact or correct.
    22. Aotearoa: The Māori name for New Zealand, meaning Land of the Long White Cloud.
    23. mātauranga Māori: A contemporary term referring to Māori knowledge, Māori ways of knowing and associated practice.
    24. current: The flow of electric charge through a conductor.
    Published 31 March 2017 Referencing Hub articles
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        geologist

      1. + Create new collection
      2. Someone who studies the materials and processes that form the Earth. They try to understand how the planet has changed over time.

        evidence

      3. + Create new collection
      4. Data, or information, used to prove or disprove something.

        genetic

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      6. Of, relating to, or determined by genes.

        greenhouse gases

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      8. A natural or manmade gas that traps heat in the Earth's atmosphere and contributes to the greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone and industrial gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap warmth from the Sun and make life possible. An overabundance of greenhouse gases leads to a rise in global temperatures – known as the greenhouse effect.

        disinformation

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      10. Information that is intentionally shared in print or online media to harm someone or something, and is based on false information. This is usually done to influence people to think a certain way.

        socio-scientific

      11. + Create new collection
      12. Combining social and scientific factors.

        accuracy

      13. + Create new collection
      14. In science, accuracy indicates the closeness of the measurements to the true or accepted value. In general usage, accuracy can mean precise, exact or correct.

        current

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      16. The flow of electric charge through a conductor.

        climate change

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      18. The large-scale, long-term increase in the Earth’s average temperatures, with associated changes in weather patterns. There is significant scientific evidence that warming is due to increased quantities of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, with most of the rise due to human activity.

        theory

      19. + Create new collection
      20. To scientists, a theory provides a coherent explanation that holds true for a large number of facts and observations about the natural world. It has to be internally consistent, based upon evidence, tested against a wide range of phenomena and demonstrate problem solving.

        diseases

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      22. 1. An abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions.

        2. In plants, an abnormal condition that interferes with vital physiological processes.

        misinformation

      23. + Create new collection
      24. Information that is wrong, but it is not shared in print or online media with the intent to hurt someone or something.

        citizen science

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      26. Citizen volunteers participate in scientific projects and work in partnership with scientists to answer scientific questions.

        wicked problem

      27. + Create new collection
      28. Complex problems that are extremely difficult to solve because of the many different aspects that interact. They often involve environmental, economic or political issues or a combination.

        Aotearoa

      29. + Create new collection
      30. The Māori name for New Zealand, meaning Land of the Long White Cloud.

        climate

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      32. The weather conditions of an area averaged over a series of years, usually 30 or more.

        evolution

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      34. In biology, the change in the genetic material and/or the behaviour of a population of organisms over time.

        anthropogenic

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      36. Changes in nature caused or influenced by humans.

        malinformation

      37. + Create new collection
      38. Information that is intentionally shared in print or online media to harm someone or something, but it is not based on false information.

        nature of science

      39. + Create new collection
      40. The Nature of Science (NoS), is an overarching and unifying strand of the New Zealand science curriculum. Through it, students develop the skills, attitudes and values to build a foundation for understanding the world around them – understanding how science works in order to make links between scientific knowledge and everyday decisions and actions.

        atmosphere

      41. + Create new collection
      42. 1. The layer of gas around the Earth.

        2. (atm) A non-SI unit of pressure equivalent to 101.325 kPa.

        mātauranga Māori

      43. + Create new collection
      44. A contemporary term referring to Māori knowledge, Māori ways of knowing and associated practice.