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  • What do you think of when asked to visualise a plant? Is it the feed crop growing in the paddock next door or a large kauri tree growing in a forest? Is it a tiny microscopic alga1 or the potted plant in your classroom? All these and more are indeed examples of plants!

    Rights: Zhiyu Li, licensed through 123rf.co

    New Zealand countryside

    The word ‘plant’ encompasses a wide range of living organisms, all of which belong to the kingdom Plantae. The kingdom Plantae is vast, encompassing nearly 300,000 species.

    The word ‘plant’ encompasses a wide range of living organisms, all of which belong to the kingdom2 Plantae and share a range of characteristics.

    In this article, we examine the key characteristics of land plants – bryophytes, lycophytes, ferns and seed3 plants.

    Key characteristics

    Land plants are multicellular organisms that can be distinguished from other living things by a number of characteristics:

    • They make their own food. Plants are photosynthetic4 and contain a green pigment5 called chlorophyll6, which enables plants to convert energy from the sun into food. Plants store their food as starch7.
    • Most plants are rooted to one place – some plants can orientate leaves towards the sun and some respond to touch.
    • Plant cell8 walls are rigid as they’re made of cellulose9.
    • The life cycle of plants includes both a sporophyte10 and a gametophyte11 generation. The two generations alternate, each giving rise to the other. This is called ‘alternation of generations12'.
    Botanists use these and other characteristics to further define plants into groups.

    Vascular or non-vascular plants

    Plants can be either vascular13 or non-vascular.

    Vascular tissues, called xylem14 and phloem15, link all parts of the plant and transport water, nutrients16 and manufactured food around. These tissues also form part of the structural support for plants.

    Plants that have vascular tissues are vascular plants and are called tracheophytes. Ferns are examples of vascular plants. The xylem allows the movement of water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant while the phloem transports nutrients and sugars around the plant. Vascular tissue allows the plants to grow taller as there is an efficient means of connecting nutrients and water to all parts of the plant. Mature xylem tissue forms the rings you see when a tree is cut down.

    Plants that don’t have xylem and phloem are non-vascular plants. Mosses are examples of non-vascular plants. These plants have no vascular tissues to transport water and nutrients. They don’t have true leaves, roots or stems. Photosynthetic products are transported by osmosis17. These plants must live near water and cannot grow tall.

    Seeded or seedless vascular plants

    Vascular plants can be further classified based on whether they produce seeds or not. They can be either seeded vascular plants or non-seeded vascular plants.

    Seeded vascular plants reproduce by seeds. These are the gymnosperms18 and angiosperms19. Gymnosperms (conifers, ginkos and cycads) produce seeds in cones. There are more than 730 species20 in this group. Angiosperms (monocotyledons and dicotyledons) produce seeds from flowers. This is the largest group of plants, having more than 260,000 species.

    Seedless vascular plants reproduce by spores21. These have clearly defined sporophyte and gametophyte generations and have roots, stems and leaves. This group consists of over 13,000 species. Ferns are an example of seedless vascular plants.

    Botanists use these and other characteristics to further define plants into groups.

    Related content

    Wnat to find out more about ferns? This article introdudces our range of reosurces on New Zealand's iconic22 plant.

    Useful link

    Visit NZ Plant Conservation Network's website to learn more about native23 and exotic plants in New Zealand. The site has images and extensive information on individual plant species. It also has links to other databases including traditional Māori uses.

    Listen to Episode 9: Non-vasc plants are all around podcast from the Department of Conservation to find out more about non-vascular plants.

    Find out about the plant life cycle on Biology Online and identify the gametophyte and the sporophyte generations in the plant life cyle.

    1. algae: A large, diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Algae have no stems or leaves and grow in water or on damp surfaces.
    2. kingdom: A division used in the Linnean system of classification or taxonomy.
    3. seed: 1. Part of the sexual reproduction of angiosperms (flowering plants) and gymnosperms (cone plants). Contains an embryo and its food store, which creates a new plant when conditions are right. 2. Offspring or progeny.
    4. photosynthesis: A process that uses the energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. Photosynthesis occurs in the green parts of plants, in algae and in some microorganisms.
    5. pigment: Any fine, insoluble, dry, solid particles used to give colour. In biology, the dye-like material produced generally in the superficial parts of animals that gives colour to skin, eyes and hair.
    6. chlorophyll: The green pigment found in most plants that allows some of the energy from sunlight to be captured and transformed into chemical potential energy.
    7. starch: A complex carbohydrate found chiefly in seeds, fruits, tubers, roots and stem pith of plants. Commonly found in foods, such as potatoes, wheat, rice and corn.
    8. cell: 1. Building block of the body. A human is made of millions of cells, which are adapted for different functions and can reproduce themselves exactly. 2. A simple electrolytic device that enables chemical energy to be transformed into electrical energy.
    9. cellulose: A stringy and fibrous carbohydrate (a type of polymer made up of glucose molecules) that is the main constituent of the cell walls of plants, especially important in wood, cotton and hemp etc. Used in the manufacture of paper, cotton and other textiles, kapok, cellophane, rayon, explosives and some pharmaceuticals.
    10. sporophyte: The spore-producing individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant that has alternation of generations. The diploid generation of the life cycle.
    11. gametophyte: The gamete-bearing individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant that has alternation of generations. The haploid generation of the life cycle.
    12. alternation of generations: A life cycle in which there are two stages – typically a spore-producing sporophyte generation and a gamete-producing gametophyte generation.
    13. vascular: Containing vessels that carry or circulate fluids, such as blood, or sap, through the body of an animal or plant.
    14. xylem: The woody vascular tissue of a plant that carries water and minerals in stems, roots and leaves and gives support to softer tissues.
    15. phloem: The vascular tissue that serves as a path for the distribution of food material in a plant.
    16. nutrient: A substance that provides nourishment for growth or metabolism.
    17. osmosis: The movement of water from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
    18. gymnosperm: A vascular plant that bears seeds not enclosed in any specialised chambers (for example, pine, ginko).
    19. angiosperm: A flowering plant whose seeds are enclosed within an ovary (for example, an apple or a rose).
    20. species: (Abbreviation sp. or spp.) A division used in the Linnean system of classification or taxonomy. A group of living organisms that can interbreed to produce viable offspring.
    21. spores: Small reproductive structures that can grow into a new individual. Produced by ferns, fungi, and some algae and protozoans. In bacteria, spores are different – they form in some bacteria in unfavourable conditions, protecting the bacteria from environmental harm.
    22. icon: Representative symbol.
    23. native: A species that lives naturally in a country, as opposed to species that have been introduced by the activity of humans. 
    Published 18 October 2010, Updated 25 May 2020 Referencing Hub articles
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        algae

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      2. A large, diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Algae have no stems or leaves and grow in water or on damp surfaces.

        photosynthesis

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      4. A process that uses the energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. Photosynthesis occurs in the green parts of plants, in algae and in some microorganisms.

        starch

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      6. A complex carbohydrate found chiefly in seeds, fruits, tubers, roots and stem pith of plants. Commonly found in foods, such as potatoes, wheat, rice and corn.

        sporophyte

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      8. The spore-producing individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant that has alternation of generations. The diploid generation of the life cycle.

        vascular

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      10. Containing vessels that carry or circulate fluids, such as blood, or sap, through the body of an animal or plant.

        nutrient

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      12. A substance that provides nourishment for growth or metabolism.

        angiosperm

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      14. A flowering plant whose seeds are enclosed within an ovary (for example, an apple or a rose).

        icon

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      16. Representative symbol.

        kingdom

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      18. A division used in the Linnean system of classification or taxonomy.

        pigment

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      20. Any fine, insoluble, dry, solid particles used to give colour. In biology, the dye-like material produced generally in the superficial parts of animals that gives colour to skin, eyes and hair.

        cell

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      22. 1. Building block of the body. A human is made of millions of cells, which are adapted for different functions and can reproduce themselves exactly.

        2. A simple electrolytic device that enables chemical energy to be transformed into electrical energy.

        gametophyte

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      24. The gamete-bearing individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant that has alternation of generations. The haploid generation of the life cycle.

        xylem

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      26. The woody vascular tissue of a plant that carries water and minerals in stems, roots and leaves and gives support to softer tissues.

        osmosis

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      28. The movement of water from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.

        species

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      30. (Abbreviation sp. or spp.) A division used in the Linnean system of classification or taxonomy. A group of living organisms that can interbreed to produce viable offspring.

        native

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      32. A species that lives naturally in a country, as opposed to species that have been introduced by the activity of humans. 

        seed

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      34. 1. Part of the sexual reproduction of angiosperms (flowering plants) and gymnosperms (cone plants). Contains an embryo and its food store, which creates a new plant when conditions are right.

        2. Offspring or progeny.

        chlorophyll

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      36. The green pigment found in most plants that allows some of the energy from sunlight to be captured and transformed into chemical potential energy.

        cellulose

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      38. A stringy and fibrous carbohydrate (a type of polymer made up of glucose molecules) that is the main constituent of the cell walls of plants, especially important in wood, cotton and hemp etc. Used in the manufacture of paper, cotton and other textiles, kapok, cellophane, rayon, explosives and some pharmaceuticals.

        alternation of generations

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      40. A life cycle in which there are two stages – typically a spore-producing sporophyte generation and a gamete-producing gametophyte generation.

        phloem

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      42. The vascular tissue that serves as a path for the distribution of food material in a plant.

        gymnosperm

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      44. A vascular plant that bears seeds not enclosed in any specialised chambers (for example, pine, ginko).

        spores

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      46. Small reproductive structures that can grow into a new individual. Produced by ferns, fungi, and some algae and protozoans. In bacteria, spores are different – they form in some bacteria in unfavourable conditions, protecting the bacteria from environmental harm.