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  • This timeline explores the history and science of mammalian pest control1 in New Zealand. A full transcript is underneath the timeline.

    1080 and pest control – a timeline

    • Introduced pest mammals
    • 1080 as pest control
    • Advances in science and technology
      • 1250Kiore and kurī

        Kiore2 (Pacific rats) and kurī3 (dogs) arrive in the canoes of the first Polynesian explorers. Kiore contribute to the extinction or reduction of several native4 species5 including giant wētā, snails and the New Zealand snipe.

        • 1250
          • 1772Norway rats

            Ngā Manu Images

            Norway rats arrive on the ships of some of the first European explorers. The rats quickly disperse and spread.

            • 1772
              • 1773Cats

                James Cook’s ship cat is the first cat to kill native birds.

                • 1773
                  • 1837Brushtail possums

                    Image licensed through 123RF Limited

                    The Australian brushtail possum is deliberately introduced to establish a fur trade, but efforts are unsuccessful.

                    • 1837
                      • 1838Rabbits

                        Rabbits are introduced for food and sport.

                        • 1838
                          • 1851Hares

                            Hares6 are introduced to Canterbury for food and sport.

                          • 1851Red deer

                            Matthew Gibson, 123RF Ltd

                            The first of about 1,000 British red deer are released in the South Island for game hunting.

                            • 1851
                              • 1858Southland possums

                                Possums are successfully established in Southland in order7 to establish a fur trade.

                                • 1858
                                  • 1860Ship rats

                                    Photograph by Jason Froggatt, Auckland War Memorial Museum

                                    Introduced during earlier visits, ship rats are now established across New Zealand.

                                    This image provides a comparison of rat species in New Zealand. From left to right – Norway rat, ship rat, kiore and house mouse.

                                    • 1860
                                      • 1863Red deer

                                        Red deer are released into the North Island.

                                        • 1863
                                          • 1870Hedgehogs

                                            Image of European Hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus, collected 1 December 1932, Taita, Wellington, New Zealand. Gift of Frederick Westbury, 1933. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Te Papa (LM001417)

                                            The European hedgehog is introduced to eat slugs, snails and grubs.

                                            • 1870
                                              • 1879Ferrets

                                                Ferrets are introduced to control8 rabbits and hares. They immediately spread into the bush.

                                                • 1879
                                                  • 1884Stoats

                                                    Ngā Manu Images

                                                    Stoats are introduced to control rabbits and hares. Scientists, including ornithologist9 Walter Butler, warn of the danger to native birds.

                                                    • 1884
                                                      • 1894Hedgehogs exchanged for weka

                                                        Christchurch man imports 12 hedgehogs in exchange for 12 weka. The hedgehogs escape on their first night ashore.

                                                        • 1894
                                                              • 1896Monofluroacetate synthesised

                                                                Public domain

                                                                Belgian chemist10 Frédéric Swarts first synthesises monofluoroacetate in the lab.

                                                                Image shows Frédéric with other attendees at the Solvay Conference on Chemistry in 1922.

                                                            • 1896
                                                              • 1905Wapiti gifted

                                                                US President Theodore Roosevelt gives wapiti deer as a gift to the country. They are released in Fiordland.

                                                                • 1905
                                                                  • 1910Impact of deer

                                                                    Red deer in a paddock in the Wairarapa. Ref: 1/2-000268-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23081433

                                                                    Large herds are reported to be overgrazing pasture and native forests, causing erosion11 and flooding.

                                                                    • 1910
                                                                        • 1927Monofluoroacetate patented

                                                                          Monofluoroacetate is patented in Germany as an insecticide/moth repellent. (At this time, the chemical naming protocol requires the first element12 of a compound13 to be numbered. There is one sodium atom14 in the compound, so it is called monofluoroacetate. The protocol has since changed, so mono is no longer used.)

                                                                        • 1927
                                                                          • 1930Possums spread

                                                                            A rare image of a rat and a possum taking chicks from a nest, courtesy of Ngā Manu Images.

                                                                            Possums have now been released in 450 locations around the country.

                                                                          • 1930Deer menace

                                                                            Deer hunters camp at Camerons Flat, and antlers. Ref: PAColl-6208-41. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22729288

                                                                            The Deer Menace Conference takes place in Christchurch. Government deer culling begins soon after.

                                                                            • 1930
                                                                                • 19441080 ‘named’

                                                                                  US Fish and Wildlife Service refers to fluoroacetate by its laboratory catalogue number – 1080. It is first used in the US as a rodenticide to control rats and mice and later used to control coyotes and other predatory mammals on government-owned land.

                                                                                • 1944
                                                                                  • 1946Possums declared pests

                                                                                    Possums are classified as pests because of the damage they cause in native forests. All protections are removed.

                                                                                    • 1946
                                                                                      • 1951Possum bounty scheme

                                                                                        Two possum trappers with a day’s catch from the Lake Waikaremoana district. Ref: PAColl-8983-05. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22833760

                                                                                        A bounty scheme runs for 10 years – 8 million possums are trapped and killed, mostly from accessible locations.

                                                                                        • 1951
                                                                                            • 1954New Zealand trials

                                                                                              Evening Post (Newspaper. 1865-2002): Photographic negatives and prints of the Evening Post newspaper. Ref: EP/1957/2393-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22621780

                                                                                              New Zealand tests the efficacy15 of 1080 for mammalian pest control using both ground-based and aerial applications. Its usage becomes widespread by 1957. Small amounts of 1080 are added to a variety of baits including cereal pellets, chopped carrot and gel baits.

                                                                                              This image is of carrots being bagged in 1957 for use with 1080 bait.

                                                                                            • 1954
                                                                                                • 1961Use in South Africa

                                                                                                  1080 is used in South Africa to target jackals, moles and baboons.

                                                                                                • 1961
                                                                                                  • 1964Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa

                                                                                                    Photo copyright of Brian Bell and sourced from The legacy of Big South Cape: Rat irruption to rat eradication. Elizabeth Bell, Brian D. Bell and Don V. Merton. January 2016. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 40(2): 212–218.

                                                                                                    Ship rats are accidentally introduced on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa (off Rakiura/Stewart Island) and quickly wipe out seven native species including birds, a bat and an insect. Other species are impacted but not eliminated.

                                                                                                    Learn more in Big South Cape: an invasion, a rescue and an eradication.

                                                                                                    Image of damage by ship rats to the Waitiri family16 muttonbird hut on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa, April 1964.

                                                                                                    • 1964
                                                                                                          • 1967Bovine tuberculosis

                                                                                                            A vet makes the link between bovine tuberculosis17 and possums. Research confirms the link in 1971. Tuberculosis (TB18) is an infectious19 disease20 that affects the lungs and airways.

                                                                                                        • 1967
                                                                                                            • 1972United States cancels the use of 1080

                                                                                                              Lawsuits prompt the US Government to review the use of toxins to control predators on government-owned land. As a result, the Environmental Protection Agency cancels the registration of 1080, sodium cyanide, strychnine and thallium sulfate.

                                                                                                            • 1972
                                                                                                                • 1979Reduced funding for TB possum control

                                                                                                                  Curbing possum numbers for TB control is initially very successful, so funding and operations are reduced. As a result of reduced control, areas where wild animals have bovine TB increase from 8 to 15. Infected herd numbers rise to pre-control levels.

                                                                                                                • 1979
                                                                                                                      • 1983Cinnamon oil

                                                                                                                        Cinnamon oil is added to baits. The smell is offensive to birds but attractive to possums.

                                                                                                                    • 1983
                                                                                                                        • 1985United States reinstates 1080 use

                                                                                                                          The US Environmental Protection Agency registers 1080 for use in livestock protection collars. The collar has a pouch of 1080 solution, which ruptures when a coyote attempts to kill a sheep or goat by biting its throat. Only coyotes that attack livestock are killed.

                                                                                                                        • 1985
                                                                                                                              • 1989GPS navigation

                                                                                                                                petervick16, licensed through 123RF Ltd

                                                                                                                                The first GPS21 navigation systems guide aerial fertiliser22 applications. 1080 operators are quick to adopt the technology.

                                                                                                                            • 1989
                                                                                                                              • 1993Video evidence

                                                                                                                                Ngā Manu Images

                                                                                                                                Video shows possums eating kōkako eggs and chicks. Prior to this, possums were assumed to be vegetarian.

                                                                                                                                • 1993Continued bait research

                                                                                                                                  Using non-toxic baits, research finds that some bird species still sample green cinnamon baits.

                                                                                                                                • 1993Tree wētā study

                                                                                                                                  Andy Heyward, licensed through 123RF Ltd.

                                                                                                                                  In a lab study, tree wētā fed doses of 1080 survive, with 67% of the toxin23 being excreted within hours.

                                                                                                                                • 1993Biocontrol options

                                                                                                                                  University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato

                                                                                                                                  A paper in the New Zealand Journal of Zoology outlines several options to biologically control possums, including using parasitic worms, hormone-toxins and vaccines.

                                                                                                                                • 1993Lower bait concentration

                                                                                                                                  Research shows that less bait is needed. The concentration drops from 20 kg bait/ha down to 5 kg bait/ha and eventually to 2–3 kg bait/ha.

                                                                                                                              • 1993
                                                                                                                                    • 1998Bait pre-feeding

                                                                                                                                      1080:The Facts

                                                                                                                                      Non-toxic pre-feeds are now standard practice. Eating safe, pleasant-tasting baits encourages rats and possums to seek out the poisoned baits when they are dropped.

                                                                                                                                      Diagram of pre-feeding24 benefits courtesy of http://www.1080facts.co.nz/the-science-of-how-1080-works.html.

                                                                                                                                  • 1998
                                                                                                                                        • 1999Blue dye added

                                                                                                                                          Trials show most bird species do not eat blue food items but possums do. Blue dye is added to green baits.

                                                                                                                                      • 1999
                                                                                                                                            • 2002Bait flow sensors

                                                                                                                                              Sensors and video recordings help aerial operators to achieve more evenly spread bait coverage.

                                                                                                                                          • 2002
                                                                                                                                              • 2003Managing the spread of bovine TB

                                                                                                                                                Graham Nugent, Manaaki Whenua25 – Landcare Research, CC-BY 4.0

                                                                                                                                                Over 300 New Zealand cattle herds are infected with bovine TB. By 2015, the number is reduced to less than 50 herds.

                                                                                                                                                A fatal curiosity is how TB could have spread from an infected possum (with pus on its fur) to cattle.

                                                                                                                                              • 2003
                                                                                                                                                  • 2005Wallaby cull

                                                                                                                                                    Tasmania uses 1080 to kill 200,000 wallabies on King Island.

                                                                                                                                                  • 2005Soil organisms

                                                                                                                                                    Andreas Thomsen CC 3.0

                                                                                                                                                    Landcare Research scientists expose a range of soil organisms to doses of 1080. Any 1080-related effects happen at levels well above those measured in soil following a 1080 operation.

                                                                                                                                                    This images shows a tiger worm (Eisenia fetida) and on the right a cocoon.

                                                                                                                                                  • 2005Drinking water

                                                                                                                                                    University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato

                                                                                                                                                    New Zealand’s Ministry of Health adopts water standards, with a provisional maximum acceptable value (PMVA) of 3.5 ppb26 1080 but recommends drinking water be less than 2 ppb.

                                                                                                                                                  • 2005ERMA reassessment

                                                                                                                                                    New Zealand’s Environmental Risk Management Authority judges that the benefits of 1080 outweigh adverse27 effects but recommends tighter controls.

                                                                                                                                                • 2005
                                                                                                                                                    • 2007New Zealand horse deaths

                                                                                                                                                      An aerial 1080 drop near Tūrangi leaves four horses dead and three sick when the operator fails to advise the owner to move the horses.

                                                                                                                                                    • 2007
                                                                                                                                                        • 2008Carrot baits stopped

                                                                                                                                                          Department of Conservation28

                                                                                                                                                          New Zealand’s Department of Conservation stops using carrot baits. Although dyed bright green, they are still attractive to some non-target species like kākā.

                                                                                                                                                        • 2008
                                                                                                                                                              • 2009SowLow bucket

                                                                                                                                                                Morgan, David. (2015). Maximising the effectiveness of aerial 1080 control of possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). 10.13140/2.1.3354.9607.

                                                                                                                                                                A new 1080 bait bucket delivery design increases the effectiveness of aerial operations.

                                                                                                                                                            • 2009
                                                                                                                                                                  • 2010Biocontrol research finishes

                                                                                                                                                                    Research into possum contraceptive vaccines and hormone29 toxin projects ends. Much has been learned about possum reproduction, but practical control methods have not been achieved.

                                                                                                                                                                  • 2010Self-resetting traps

                                                                                                                                                                    Conservation groups trial self-resetting traps and provide feedback to refine the traps and lures. The aim is to reduce the need for people to check and reset traps between kills.

                                                                                                                                                                • 2010
                                                                                                                                                                    • 2011Red fox eradication

                                                                                                                                                                      Tasmania uses 1080 to eradicate30 red foxes from the state.

                                                                                                                                                                    • 2011Whio success

                                                                                                                                                                      Bubs Smith

                                                                                                                                                                      Whio (blue duck) fledgling31 numbers triple after aerial and ground control operations in Tongariro National Park in the central North Island.

                                                                                                                                                                    • 2011PCE report

                                                                                                                                                                      Dr Jan Wright, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, releases a report evaluating the use of 1080. She says it is effective and safe and New Zealand should use more of it.

                                                                                                                                                                  • 2011
                                                                                                                                                                    • 2012Tahr damage

                                                                                                                                                                      Department of Conservation, CC BY 4.0

                                                                                                                                                                      Department of Conservation photos reveal grazing impacts of tahr32 on native vegetation33.

                                                                                                                                                                      Image is of Zora Creek, Landsborough, before tahr impacts 2003 (left) and after tahr impacts 2012.

                                                                                                                                                                      • 2012
                                                                                                                                                                          • 2014Large beech mast

                                                                                                                                                                            Large beech seed34 events in the South Island lead to a boom in pest numbers. Increased aerial 1080 drops are effective in stopping rat plagues.

                                                                                                                                                                          • 2014Kea deaths

                                                                                                                                                                            The Department of Conservation reports that 24 radio-tagged kea died as a result of aerial operations between 2008 and 2014. Kea deaths are confined to just six of the pest control sites. Experts think kea that are exposed to human activity and food are at greater risk of poisoning as they are more likely to try new foods.

                                                                                                                                                                          • 2014Biological Heritage NSC

                                                                                                                                                                            New Zealand’s Biological Heritage National Science Challenge

                                                                                                                                                                            Launch of New Zealand’s Biological Heritage Ngā Koiora Tuku Iho National Science Challenge. Research will cover biosecurity35 and management.

                                                                                                                                                                        • 2014
                                                                                                                                                                            • 2015Kōkako success

                                                                                                                                                                              Matt Binns, CC BY 2.0

                                                                                                                                                                              The kōkako population36 in the Mangatutu Ecological Area (south of Hamilton) grows by 700% after four 1080 drops over 16 years.

                                                                                                                                                                              This image is of a North Island kōkako (Callaeas wilsoni).

                                                                                                                                                                            • 2015
                                                                                                                                                                                • 2016No kea deaths

                                                                                                                                                                                  The Department of Conservation reports that there were no kea deaths from it's 2016 Battle for our Birds aerial operation.

                                                                                                                                                                              • 2016
                                                                                                                                                                                • 2017Sika deer released

                                                                                                                                                                                  Sika deer are illegally released into north Taranaki conservation forest. Wild deer are major pests on public conservation lands.

                                                                                                                                                                                  • 2017Gene editing

                                                                                                                                                                                    Royal Society Te Apārangi

                                                                                                                                                                                    The Royal Society Te Apārangi releases documents exploring the use of gene editing37 for pest control of possums, rats and stoats.

                                                                                                                                                                                • 2017
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 2018Cattle deaths

                                                                                                                                                                                      Eight cattle die after entering a 1080 operational area via a broken fence.

                                                                                                                                                                                    • 2018
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 2021South Island robins

                                                                                                                                                                                          Research published in 2021 notes the positive nesting success of South Island robins after aerial 1080 drops significantly reduced ship rat populations38.

                                                                                                                                                                                        • 2021

                                                                                                                                                                                        This timeline traces the introduction of pest mammal39 species to New Zealand, the use of 1080 for pest control and how advances in science and technology have improved how we use it.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Introduced pest mammals

                                                                                                                                                                                        Early settlers brought animals to New Zealand for food, fur, sport and sometimes by accident. In the absence of natural predators, many of these mammals became pest species that impact native ecosystems40 and kill native species.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1080 as pest control

                                                                                                                                                                                        1080 is a poison41 that targets mammals. It is the most regulated42 form of pest control in New Zealand.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Advances in science and technology

                                                                                                                                                                                        Decades of research have improved our understanding of 1080’s environmental impacts. Technological advances have increased the safety, efficiency and precision43 of 1080 operations. New technologies also provide targeted and more humane44 means of pest control.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Transcript

                                                                                                                                                                                        Introduced pest mammals

                                                                                                                                                                                        1250 – Kiore and kurī

                                                                                                                                                                                        Kiore (Pacific rats) and kurī (dogs) arrive in the canoes of the first Polynesian explorers. Kiore contribute to the extinction or reduction of several native species including giant wētā, snails and the New Zealand snipe.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1772 – Norway rats

                                                                                                                                                                                        Norway rats arrive on the ships of some of the first European explorers. The rats quickly disperse and spread.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image courtesy of Ngā Manu Images

                                                                                                                                                                                        1773 – Cats

                                                                                                                                                                                        James Cook’s ship cat is the first cat to kill native birds.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1837 – Brushtail possums

                                                                                                                                                                                        The Australian brushtail possum is deliberately introduced to establish a fur trade, but efforts are unsuccessful.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image licensed through 123RF Limited

                                                                                                                                                                                        1838 – Rabbits

                                                                                                                                                                                        Rabbits are introduced for food and sport.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1851 – Hares

                                                                                                                                                                                        Hares are introduced to Canterbury for food and sport.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1851 – Red deer

                                                                                                                                                                                        The first of about 1,000 British red deer are released in the South Island for game hunting.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1858 – Southland possums

                                                                                                                                                                                        Possums are successfully established in Southland in order to establish a fur trade.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1860 – Ship rats

                                                                                                                                                                                        Introduced during earlier visits, ship rats are now established across New Zealand.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: Comparison of rat species in New Zealand. From left to right – Norway rat, ship rat, kiore and house mouse.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Photograph by Jason Froggatt, courtesy Auckland War-Memorial Museum.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1863 – Red deer

                                                                                                                                                                                        Red deer are released into the North Island.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1870 – Hedgehogs

                                                                                                                                                                                        The European hedgehog is introduced to eat slugs, snails and grubs.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image of European Hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus, collected 1 December 1932, Taita, Wellington, New Zealand. Gift of Frederick Westbury, 1933. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Te Papa (LM001417)

                                                                                                                                                                                        1879 – Ferrets

                                                                                                                                                                                        Ferrets are introduced to control rabbits and hares. They immediately spread into the bush.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1884 – Stoats

                                                                                                                                                                                        Stoats are introduced to control rabbits and hares. Scientists, including ornithologist Walter Butler, warn of the danger to native birds.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image courtesy of Ngā Manu Images

                                                                                                                                                                                        1894 – Hedgehogs exchanged for weka

                                                                                                                                                                                        Christchurch man imports 12 hedgehogs in exchange for 12 weka. The hedgehogs escape on their first night ashore.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1905 – Wapiti gifted

                                                                                                                                                                                        US President Theodore Roosevelt gives wapiti deer as a gift to the country. They are released in Fiordland.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1910 – Impact of deer

                                                                                                                                                                                        Large herds are reported to be overgrazing pasture and native forests, causing erosion and flooding.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: Red deer in a paddock in the Wairarapa. Ref: 1/2-000268-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23081433

                                                                                                                                                                                        1930 – Possums spread

                                                                                                                                                                                        Possums have now been released in 450 locations around the country.

                                                                                                                                                                                        A rare image of a rat and a possum taking chicks from a nest, courtesy of Ngā Manu Images

                                                                                                                                                                                        1930 – Deer menace

                                                                                                                                                                                        The Deer Menace Conference takes place in Christchurch. Government deer culling begins soon after.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: Deer hunters camp at Camerons Flat, and antlers. Ref: PAColl-6208-41. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22729288

                                                                                                                                                                                        1946 – Possums declared pests

                                                                                                                                                                                        Possums are classified as pests because of the damage they cause in native forests. All protections are removed.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: Two possum trappers with a day’s catch from the Lake Waikaremoana district. Ref: PAColl-8983-05. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22833760

                                                                                                                                                                                        1951 – Possum bounty scheme

                                                                                                                                                                                        A bounty scheme runs for 10 years – 8 million possums are trapped and killed, mostly from accessible locations.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1964 – Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa

                                                                                                                                                                                        Ship rats are accidentally introduced on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa (off Rakiura/Stewart Island) and quickly wipe out seven native species including birds, a bat and an insect. Other species are impacted but not eliminated.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Learn more in Big South Cape: an invasion, a rescue and an eradication.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image of damage by ship rats to the Waitiri family muttonbird hut on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa, April 1964.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Photo copyright of Brian Bell and sourced from The legacy of Big South Cape: Rat irruption to rat eradication. Elizabeth Bell, Brian D. Bell and Don V. Merton. January 2016. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 40(2): 212–218.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1993 – Video evidence

                                                                                                                                                                                        Video shows possums eating kōkako eggs and chicks. Prior to this, possums were assumed to be vegetarian.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image courtesy of Ngā Manu Images

                                                                                                                                                                                        2012 – Tahr damage

                                                                                                                                                                                        Department of Conservation photos reveal grazing impacts of tahr on native vegetation.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image is of Zora Creek, Landsborough, before tahr impacts 2003 (left) and after tahr impacts 2012.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Department of Conservation, CC BY 4.0

                                                                                                                                                                                        2017 – Sika deer released

                                                                                                                                                                                        Sika deer are illegally released into north Taranaki conservation forest. Wild deer are major pests on public conservation lands.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1080 as pest control

                                                                                                                                                                                        1080 is a poison that targets mammals. It is the most regulated form of pest control in New Zealand.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1927 – Monofluoroacetate patented

                                                                                                                                                                                        Monofluoroacetate is patented in Germany as an insecticide/moth repellent. (At this time, the chemical naming protocol requires the first element of a compound to be numbered. There is one sodium atom in the compound, so it is called monofluoroacetate. The protocol has since changed, so mono is no longer used.)

                                                                                                                                                                                        1944 – 1080 ‘named’

                                                                                                                                                                                        US Fish and Wildlife Service refers to fluoroacetate by its laboratory catalogue number – 1080. It is first used in the US as a rodenticide to control rats and mice and later used to control coyotes and other predatory mammals on government-owned land.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1954 – New Zealand trials

                                                                                                                                                                                        New Zealand tests the efficacy of 1080 for mammalian pest control using both ground-based and aerial applications. Its usage becomes widespread by 1957. Small amounts of 1080 are added to a variety of baits including cereal pellets, chopped carrot and gel baits.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: Bagging carrots in 1957 for use with 1080 bait.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Evening Post (Newspaper. 1865-2002): Photographic negatives and prints of the Evening Post newspaper. Ref: EP/1957/2393-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22621780

                                                                                                                                                                                        1961 – Use in South Africa

                                                                                                                                                                                        1080 is used in South Africa to target jackals, moles and baboons.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1972 – United States cancels the use of 1080

                                                                                                                                                                                        Lawsuits prompt the US Government to review the use of toxins to control predators on government-owned land. As a result, the Environmental Protection Agency cancels the registration of 1080, sodium cyanide, strychnine and thallium sulfate.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1979 – Reduced funding for TB possum control

                                                                                                                                                                                        Curbing possum numbers for TB control is initially very successful, so funding and operations are reduced. As a result of reduced control, areas where wild animals have bovine TB increase from 8 to 15. Infected herd numbers rise to pre-control levels.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1985 – United States reinstates 1080 use

                                                                                                                                                                                        The US Environmental Protection Agency registers 1080 for use in livestock protection collars. The collar has a pouch of 1080 solution, which ruptures when a coyote attempts to kill a sheep or goat by biting its throat. Only coyotes that attack livestock are killed.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2003 – Managing the spread of bovine TB

                                                                                                                                                                                        Over 300 New Zealand cattle herds are infected with bovine TB. By 2015, the number is reduced to less than 50 herds.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: A fatal curiosity; how TB could spread from an infected possum (with pus on its fur) to cattle. Graham Nugent, Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, CC-BY 4.0

                                                                                                                                                                                        2005 – Wallaby cull

                                                                                                                                                                                        Tasmania uses 1080 to kill 200,000 wallabies on King Island.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2007 – New Zealand horse deaths

                                                                                                                                                                                        An aerial 1080 drop near Tūrangi leaves four horses dead and three sick when the operator fails to advise the owner to move the horses.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2008 – Carrot baits stopped

                                                                                                                                                                                        New Zealand’s Department of Conservation stops using carrot baits. Although dyed bright green, they are still attractive to some non-target species like kākā.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image courtesy of the Department of Conservation

                                                                                                                                                                                        2011 – Red fox eradication

                                                                                                                                                                                        Tasmania uses 1080 to eradicate red foxes from the state.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2011 – Whio success

                                                                                                                                                                                        Whio (blue duck) fledgling45 numbers triple after aerial and ground control operations in Tongariro National Park in the central North Island.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image courtesy of Bubs Smith

                                                                                                                                                                                        2014 – Large beech mast

                                                                                                                                                                                        Large beech seed events in the South Island lead to a boom in pest numbers. Increased aerial 1080 drops are effective in stopping rat plagues.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2014 – Kea deaths

                                                                                                                                                                                        The Department of Conservation reports that 24 radio-tagged kea died as a result of aerial operations between 2008 and 2014. Kea deaths are confined to just six of the pest control sites. Experts think kea that are exposed to human activity and food are at greater risk of poisoning as they are more likely to try new foods.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2015 – Kōkako success

                                                                                                                                                                                        The kōkako population in the Mangatutu Ecological Area (south of Hamilton) grows by 700% after four 1080 drops over 16 years.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: North Island kōkako (Callaeas wilsoni), Matt Binns, CC BY 2.0

                                                                                                                                                                                        2016 – No kea deaths

                                                                                                                                                                                        The Department of Conservation reports that there were no kea deaths from it's 2016 Battle for our Birds aerial operation.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2018 – Cattle deaths

                                                                                                                                                                                        Eight cattle die after entering a 1080 operational area via a broken fence.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2021 – South Island robins

                                                                                                                                                                                        Research published in 2021 notes the positive nesting success of South Island robins after aerial 1080 drops significantly reduced ship rat populations.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Advances in science and technology

                                                                                                                                                                                        1896 – Monofluroacetate synthesised

                                                                                                                                                                                        Belgian chemist Frédéric Swarts first synthesises monofluoroacetate in the lab.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: Frédéric Swarts with other attendees at the Solvay Conference on Chemistry in 1922. Public domain.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1967 – Bovine tuberculosis

                                                                                                                                                                                        A vet makes the link between bovine tuberculosis and possums. Research confirms the link in 1971. Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that affects the lungs and airways.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1983 – Cinnamon oil

                                                                                                                                                                                        Cinnamon oil is added to baits. The smell is offensive to birds but attractive to possums.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1989 – GPS navigation

                                                                                                                                                                                        The first GPS navigation systems guide aerial fertiliser applications. 1080 operators are quick to adopt the technology.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: petervick16, licensed through 123RF Ltd.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1993 – Continued bait research

                                                                                                                                                                                        Using non-toxic baits, research finds that some bird species still sample green cinnamon baits.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1993 – Tree wētā study

                                                                                                                                                                                        In a lab study, tree wētā fed doses of 1080 survive, with 67% of the toxin being excreted within hours.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image courtesy of Andy Heyward, licensed through 123RF Ltd.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1993 – Biocontrol options

                                                                                                                                                                                        A paper in the New Zealand Journal of Zoology outlines several options to biologically control possums, including using parasitic worms, hormone-toxins and vaccines.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato

                                                                                                                                                                                        1993 – Lower bait concentration

                                                                                                                                                                                        Research shows that less bait is needed. The concentration drops from 20 kg bait/ha down to 5 kg bait/ha and eventually to 2–3 kg bait/ha.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1998 – Bait pre-feeding

                                                                                                                                                                                        Non-toxic pre-feeds are now standard practice. Eating safe, pleasant-tasting baits encourages rats and possums to seek out the poisoned baits when they are dropped.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Diagram of pre-feeding benefits courtesy of http://www.1080facts.co.nz/the-science-of-how-1080-works.html.

                                                                                                                                                                                        1999 – Blue dye added

                                                                                                                                                                                        Trials show most bird species do not eat blue food items but possums do. Blue dye is added to green baits.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2002 – Bait flow sensors

                                                                                                                                                                                        Sensors and video recordings help aerial operators to achieve more evenly spread bait coverage.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2004 – Aquatic creatures

                                                                                                                                                                                        NIWA scientists place 10 times the usual 1080 concentration in a stream. Samplings show no biological impacts to aquatic organisms.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2005 – Soil organisms

                                                                                                                                                                                        Landcare Research scientists expose a range of soil organisms to doses of 1080. Any 1080-related effects happen at levels well above those measured in soil following a 1080 operation.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image of tiger worm (Eisenia fetida) and cocoon courtesy of Andreas Thomsen CC 3.0

                                                                                                                                                                                        2005 – Drinking water

                                                                                                                                                                                        New Zealand’s Ministry of Health adopts water standards, with a provisional maximum acceptable value (PMVA) of 3.5 ppb 1080 but recommends drinking water be less than 2 ppb.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image: University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato

                                                                                                                                                                                        2005 – ERMA reassessment

                                                                                                                                                                                        New Zealand’s Environmental Risk Management Authority judges that the benefits of 1080 outweigh adverse effects but recommends tighter controls.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2009 – SowLow bucket

                                                                                                                                                                                        A new 1080 bait bucket delivery design increases the effectiveness of aerial operations.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Morgan, David. (2015). Maximising the effectiveness of aerial 1080 control of possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). 10.13140/2.1.3354.9607.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2010 – Biocontrol research finishes

                                                                                                                                                                                        Research into possum contraceptive vaccines and hormone toxin projects ends. Much has been learned about possum reproduction, but practical control methods have not been achieved.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2010 – Self-resetting traps

                                                                                                                                                                                        Conservation groups trial self-resetting traps and provide feedback to refine the traps and lures. The aim is to reduce the need for people to check and reset traps between kills.

                                                                                                                                                                                        IMAGE: Goodnature trap, Annie Dick, CC BY-SA 4.0

                                                                                                                                                                                        2011 – PCE report

                                                                                                                                                                                        Dr Jan Wright, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, releases a report evaluating the use of 1080. She says it is effective and safe and New Zealand should use more of it.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2014 – Biological Heritage NSC

                                                                                                                                                                                        Launch of New Zealand’s Biological Heritage Ngā Koiora Tuku Iho National Science Challenge. Research will cover biosecurity and management.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Logo courtesy of New Zealand’s Biological Heritage National Science Challenge

                                                                                                                                                                                        2016 – Predator-free launch

                                                                                                                                                                                        The government adopts the goal of becoming predator-free by 2050.

                                                                                                                                                                                        2017 – Gene editing

                                                                                                                                                                                        The Royal Society Te Apārangi releases documents exploring the use of gene46 editing for pest control of possums, rats and stoats.

                                                                                                                                                                                        Image courtesy of Royal Society Te Apārangi

                                                                                                                                                                                        Rights: The University of Waikato Te Whare Wananga o Waikato Published 26 November 2018, Updated 9 August 2021 Referencing Hub media
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. pest control: The management of species defined as a pest.
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. kiore: Pacific rat rattus exulans. Also known as Polynesian rat. A species of rat introduced to Aotearoa New Zealand by Polynesian settlers.
                                                                                                                                                                                        3. kurī: A species of dog introduced to Aotearoa by early Polynesian settlers.
                                                                                                                                                                                        4. native: A species that lives naturally in a country, as opposed to species that have been introduced by the activity of humans. 
                                                                                                                                                                                        5. species: (Abbreviation sp. or spp.) A division used in the Linnean system of classification or taxonomy. A group of living organisms that can interbreed to produce viable offspring.
                                                                                                                                                                                        6. hare: A long-eared mammal that resembles a rabbit.
                                                                                                                                                                                        7. order: A classification grouping that ranks above family and below class (kingdom > phylum > class > order > family > genus > species).
                                                                                                                                                                                        8. control: 1. Part of a scientific experiment in which no treatment has been applied in order to see whether there are any detectable differences to the experiment that did receive a treatment. 2. To hold in check or to curb.
                                                                                                                                                                                        9. ornithologists: People who study birds.
                                                                                                                                                                                        10. chemist: A scientist trained in the science of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties.
                                                                                                                                                                                        11. erosion: Wearing away of the land by mechanical action, such as by wind, water and glaciers, and by material carried in them. It can also be the gradual wearing away of a surface due to friction, particle collisions or chemical attack. Part of the process of erosion transports material away.
                                                                                                                                                                                        12. element: A substance made of atoms that all have the same atomic number. Elements cannot be split into simpler substances using normal chemical methods.
                                                                                                                                                                                        13. compound: A pure substance made up of two or more different elements chemically combined.
                                                                                                                                                                                        14. atom: The smallest possible unit of matter that still maintains an element’s identity during chemical reactions. Atoms contain one or more protons and neutrons (except hydrogen (H), which normally contains no neutrons) in a nucleus around which one or more electrons move.
                                                                                                                                                                                        15. efficacy: The ability to produce a desired or intended result.
                                                                                                                                                                                        16. family: A classification grouping that ranks above genus and below order (kingdom > phylum > class > order > family > genus > species).
                                                                                                                                                                                        17. tuberculosis: Tuberculosis or TB (short for tubercle bacillus) is a common but often deadly bacterial infection that primarily affects the lungs.
                                                                                                                                                                                        18. tuberculosis: Tuberculosis or TB (short for tubercle bacillus) is a common but often deadly bacterial infection that primarily affects the lungs.
                                                                                                                                                                                        19. infectious: An infection that quickly spreads.
                                                                                                                                                                                        20. diseases: 1. An abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions. 2. In plants, an abnormal condition that interferes with vital physiological processes.
                                                                                                                                                                                        21. GPS: Global positioning system. Uses satellites, computers and receivers to determine the exact position of a receiver on Earth by calculating the time difference for signals from different satellites to reach the receiver.
                                                                                                                                                                                        22. fertiliser: Compounds that are given to plants to promote growth.
                                                                                                                                                                                        23. toxin: A poisonous substance that is a specific product of the metabolic activities of a living organism.
                                                                                                                                                                                        24. pre-feeding: In pest control, the use of pleasant-tasting non-toxic baits prior to an operation. This encourages pests to seek out poisoned baits when used at a later date.
                                                                                                                                                                                        25. whenua: Land.
                                                                                                                                                                                        26. ppb: A commonly used term to describe a very tiny amount of something: one part in one billion parts. For example, 1 second in 32 years is 1 part per billion (ppb). In chemistry, a unit of measure for very, very small concentrations (dilutions). This can be expressed as micrograms per litre (ug/L).
                                                                                                                                                                                        27. adverse: Unfavourable or contrary.
                                                                                                                                                                                        28. conservation: The protection, preservation and careful management of a species, habitat, artifact or taonga.
                                                                                                                                                                                        29. hormone: A chemical substance secreted by an endocrine gland into the bloodstream. It acts on specific target cells to produce a given response to control and regulate the activity of certain cells or organs.
                                                                                                                                                                                        30. eradicate: To put an end to something or destroy it completely. This includes the deliberate local extinction of an introduced species as part of pest control
                                                                                                                                                                                        31. fledgling: A young bird that has recently left its nest but is still dependent upon parental care and feeding.
                                                                                                                                                                                        32. tahr: Himalayan tahr are large goat-like animals, native to India and Nepal. Introduced to New Zealand for sport hunting, they have become a threat to alpine areas in the South Island.
                                                                                                                                                                                        33. vegetation: Plant life.
                                                                                                                                                                                        34. seed: 1. Part of the sexual reproduction of angiosperms (flowering plants) and gymnosperms (cone plants). Contains an embryo and its food store, which creates a new plant when conditions are right. 2. Offspring or progeny.
                                                                                                                                                                                        35. biosecurity: The process of preventing, detecting and controlling unwanted pests and diseases.
                                                                                                                                                                                        36. population: In biology, a population is a group of organisms of a species that live in the same place at a same time and that can interbreed.
                                                                                                                                                                                        37. gene editing: Using genetic technologies to add, remove or alter genetic information in specific places.
                                                                                                                                                                                        38. population: In biology, a population is a group of organisms of a species that live in the same place at a same time and that can interbreed.
                                                                                                                                                                                        39. mammal: A warm-blooded animal, such as a human being, dog or whale, the female of which produces milk from mammary glands to feed her young/newborn offspring.
                                                                                                                                                                                        40. ecosystem: An interacting system including the biological, physical, and chemical relationships between a community of organisms and the environment they live in.
                                                                                                                                                                                        41. poison: A substance that, through its chemical action, usually kills, injures or impairs an organism.
                                                                                                                                                                                        42. regulated: Controlled by rules and laws. In biology: To adjust a bodily function or process. In genetics: To control the expression of a gene or genes.
                                                                                                                                                                                        43. precision: The closeness that repeated measurements show under unchanged experimental conditions.
                                                                                                                                                                                        44. humane: Compassionate.
                                                                                                                                                                                        45. fledge: When young birds develop the feathers necessary for flight or independent activity. It can also be used to refer to when young birds leave the nest after developing such feathers.
                                                                                                                                                                                        46. genes: A segment of a DNA molecule that carries the information needed to make a specific protein. Genes determine the traits (phenotype) of the individual.
                                                                                                                                                                                          Go to full glossary
                                                                                                                                                                                          Download all

                                                                                                                                                                                          pest control

                                                                                                                                                                                        1. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. The management of species defined as a pest.

                                                                                                                                                                                          native

                                                                                                                                                                                        3. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        4. A species that lives naturally in a country, as opposed to species that have been introduced by the activity of humans. 

                                                                                                                                                                                          order

                                                                                                                                                                                        5. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        6. A classification grouping that ranks above family and below class (kingdom > phylum > class > order > family > genus > species).

                                                                                                                                                                                          chemist

                                                                                                                                                                                        7. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        8. A scientist trained in the science of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties.

                                                                                                                                                                                          compound

                                                                                                                                                                                        9. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        10. A pure substance made up of two or more different elements chemically combined.

                                                                                                                                                                                          family

                                                                                                                                                                                        11. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        12. A classification grouping that ranks above genus and below order (kingdom > phylum > class > order > family > genus > species).

                                                                                                                                                                                          diseases

                                                                                                                                                                                        13. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        14. 1. An abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions.

                                                                                                                                                                                          2. In plants, an abnormal condition that interferes with vital physiological processes.

                                                                                                                                                                                          toxin

                                                                                                                                                                                        15. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        16. A poisonous substance that is a specific product of the metabolic activities of a living organism.

                                                                                                                                                                                          ppb

                                                                                                                                                                                        17. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        18. A commonly used term to describe a very tiny amount of something: one part in one billion parts. For example, 1 second in 32 years is 1 part per billion (ppb).

                                                                                                                                                                                          In chemistry, a unit of measure for very, very small concentrations (dilutions). This can be expressed as micrograms per litre (ug/L).

                                                                                                                                                                                          hormone

                                                                                                                                                                                        19. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        20. A chemical substance secreted by an endocrine gland into the bloodstream. It acts on specific target cells to produce a given response to control and regulate the activity of certain cells or organs.

                                                                                                                                                                                          tahr

                                                                                                                                                                                        21. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        22. Himalayan tahr are large goat-like animals, native to India and Nepal. Introduced to New Zealand for sport hunting, they have become a threat to alpine areas in the South Island.

                                                                                                                                                                                          biosecurity

                                                                                                                                                                                        23. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        24. The process of preventing, detecting and controlling unwanted pests and diseases.

                                                                                                                                                                                          mammal

                                                                                                                                                                                        25. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        26. A warm-blooded animal, such as a human being, dog or whale, the female of which produces milk from mammary glands to feed her young/newborn offspring.

                                                                                                                                                                                          regulated

                                                                                                                                                                                        27. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        28. Controlled by rules and laws.

                                                                                                                                                                                          In biology: To adjust a bodily function or process.

                                                                                                                                                                                          In genetics: To control the expression of a gene or genes.

                                                                                                                                                                                          fledge

                                                                                                                                                                                        29. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        30. When young birds develop the feathers necessary for flight or independent activity. It can also be used to refer to when young birds leave the nest after developing such feathers.

                                                                                                                                                                                          kiore

                                                                                                                                                                                        31. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        32. Pacific rat rattus exulans. Also known as Polynesian rat. A species of rat introduced to Aotearoa New Zealand by Polynesian settlers.

                                                                                                                                                                                          species

                                                                                                                                                                                        33. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        34. (Abbreviation sp. or spp.) A division used in the Linnean system of classification or taxonomy. A group of living organisms that can interbreed to produce viable offspring.

                                                                                                                                                                                          control

                                                                                                                                                                                        35. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        36. 1. Part of a scientific experiment in which no treatment has been applied in order to see whether there are any detectable differences to the experiment that did receive a treatment.

                                                                                                                                                                                          2. To hold in check or to curb.

                                                                                                                                                                                          erosion

                                                                                                                                                                                        37. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        38. Wearing away of the land by mechanical action, such as by wind, water and glaciers, and by material carried in them. It can also be the gradual wearing away of a surface due to friction, particle collisions or chemical attack. Part of the process of erosion transports material away.

                                                                                                                                                                                          atom

                                                                                                                                                                                        39. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        40. The smallest possible unit of matter that still maintains an element’s identity during chemical reactions. Atoms contain one or more protons and neutrons (except hydrogen (H), which normally contains no neutrons) in a nucleus around which one or more electrons move.

                                                                                                                                                                                          tuberculosis

                                                                                                                                                                                        41. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        42. Tuberculosis or TB (short for tubercle bacillus) is a common but often deadly bacterial infection that primarily affects the lungs.

                                                                                                                                                                                          GPS

                                                                                                                                                                                        43. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        44. Global positioning system. Uses satellites, computers and receivers to determine the exact position of a receiver on Earth by calculating the time difference for signals from different satellites to reach the receiver.

                                                                                                                                                                                          pre-feeding

                                                                                                                                                                                        45. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        46. In pest control, the use of pleasant-tasting non-toxic baits prior to an operation. This encourages pests to seek out poisoned baits when used at a later date.

                                                                                                                                                                                          adverse

                                                                                                                                                                                        47. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        48. Unfavourable or contrary.

                                                                                                                                                                                          eradicate

                                                                                                                                                                                        49. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        50. To put an end to something or destroy it completely. This includes the deliberate local extinction of an introduced species as part of pest control

                                                                                                                                                                                          vegetation

                                                                                                                                                                                        51. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        52. Plant life.

                                                                                                                                                                                          population

                                                                                                                                                                                        53. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        54. In biology, a population is a group of organisms of a species that live in the same place at a same time and that can interbreed.

                                                                                                                                                                                          ecosystem

                                                                                                                                                                                        55. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        56. An interacting system including the biological, physical, and chemical relationships between a community of organisms and the environment they live in.

                                                                                                                                                                                          precision

                                                                                                                                                                                        57. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        58. The closeness that repeated measurements show under unchanged experimental conditions.

                                                                                                                                                                                          genes

                                                                                                                                                                                        59. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        60. A segment of a DNA molecule that carries the information needed to make a specific protein. Genes determine the traits (phenotype) of the individual.

                                                                                                                                                                                          kurī

                                                                                                                                                                                        61. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        62. A species of dog introduced to Aotearoa by early Polynesian settlers.

                                                                                                                                                                                          hare

                                                                                                                                                                                        63. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        64. A long-eared mammal that resembles a rabbit.

                                                                                                                                                                                          ornithologists

                                                                                                                                                                                        65. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        66. People who study birds.

                                                                                                                                                                                          element

                                                                                                                                                                                        67. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        68. A substance made of atoms that all have the same atomic number. Elements cannot be split into simpler substances using normal chemical methods.

                                                                                                                                                                                          efficacy

                                                                                                                                                                                        69. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        70. The ability to produce a desired or intended result.

                                                                                                                                                                                          infectious

                                                                                                                                                                                        71. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        72. An infection that quickly spreads.

                                                                                                                                                                                          fertiliser

                                                                                                                                                                                        73. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        74. Compounds that are given to plants to promote growth.

                                                                                                                                                                                          whenua

                                                                                                                                                                                        75. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        76. Land.

                                                                                                                                                                                          conservation

                                                                                                                                                                                        77. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        78. The protection, preservation and careful management of a species, habitat, artifact or taonga.

                                                                                                                                                                                          fledgling

                                                                                                                                                                                        79. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        80. A young bird that has recently left its nest but is still dependent upon parental care and feeding.

                                                                                                                                                                                          seed

                                                                                                                                                                                        81. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        82. 1. Part of the sexual reproduction of angiosperms (flowering plants) and gymnosperms (cone plants). Contains an embryo and its food store, which creates a new plant when conditions are right.

                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Offspring or progeny.

                                                                                                                                                                                          gene editing

                                                                                                                                                                                        83. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        84. Using genetic technologies to add, remove or alter genetic information in specific places.

                                                                                                                                                                                          poison

                                                                                                                                                                                        85. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        86. A substance that, through its chemical action, usually kills, injures or impairs an organism.

                                                                                                                                                                                          humane

                                                                                                                                                                                        87. + Create new collection
                                                                                                                                                                                        88. Compassionate.